"Straussophobia: Six Questions for Peter Minowitz," Harper's Magazine, 9/29/09, This page was last edited on 25 February 2023, at 11:52. Strauss considered one of the most important moments in the history of philosophy Socrates' argument that philosophers could not study nature without considering their own human nature,[45] which, in the words of Aristotle, is that of "a political animal". They obviously made a convincing case to a president with very limited national security and foreign policy experience, who keenly felt the burden of leading the nation in the wake of the deadliest terrorist attack ever on American soil. "Introduction: Mr. Strauss Goes to Washington?" He wrote several essays about its controversies but left these activities behind by his early twenties.[82]. Strauss joined a Jewish fraternity and worked for the German Zionist movement, which introduced him to various German Jewish intellectuals, such as Norbert Elias, Leo Lwenthal, Hannah Arendt and Walter Benjamin. This attitude was particularly pronounced among the conservatives of Strauss's era. Gourevitch, Victor. Among those who worked for Jackson were incipient neoconservatives Paul Wolfowitz, Doug Feith, and Richard Perle. Great books are held to be written by authors/philosophers "of such sovereign critical self-knowledge and intellectual power that they can in no way be reduced to the general thought of their time and place",[99] with other works "understood as epiphenomenal to the original insights of a thinker of the first rank". 157208. Mnchen: Fink, 2006. [96], In 1979, an early study by liberal Peter Steinfels concentrated on the ideas of Irving Kristol, Daniel Patrick Moynihan and Daniel Bell. The Project for a New American Century (see below) and its petitions to the Clinton Administration proved instrumental in prompting Operation Desert Fox, although the Clinton Doctrine's concluding iteration of what became a National Security Strategy proved pivotal as well. During the late 1990s, Irving Kristol and other writers in neoconservative magazines began touting anti-Darwinist views as an endorsement of intelligent design. They will be the two great autocratic powers, China and Russia, which pose an old challenge not envisioned within the new 'war on terror' paradigm. Strauss's argument is not that the medieval writers he studies reserved one exoteric meaning for the many (hoi polloi) and an esoteric, hidden one for the few (hoi oligoi), but that, through rhetorical stratagems including self-contradiction and hyperboles, these writers succeeded in conveying their proper meaning at the tacit heart of their writingsa heart or message irreducible to "the letter" or historical dimension of texts. Leo Strauss, "The Crisis of Our Time", 4154 in Howard Spaeth, ed.. Leo Strauss, "What Is Political Philosophy?" Powell reiterated that pundits "exaggerated the centrality of preemption in U.S. strategythe breadth of U.S. strategy transcends the war on terrorism." Weber wanted to separate values from science but, according to Strauss, was really a derivative thinker, deeply influenced by Nietzsche's relativism. [105] Political scientist Zeev Sternhell states: "Neoconservatism has succeeded in convincing the great majority of Americans that the main questions that concern a society are not economic, and that social questions are really moral questions". Since whether or not to accept a purported divine revelation is itself one of the 'permanent' questions, orthodoxy must always remain an option equally as defensible as unbelief. ", "Bush accused of adopting Clinton policy on Israel", The President's State of the Union Speech, Bush Speechwriter's Revealing Memoir Is Nerd's Revenge, "National Security Strategy of the United States", "International Law and the Bush Doctrine", "2 Camps Trying to Influence McCain on Foreign Policy", "Neocons for Hillary: why some conservatives think Trump threatens democracy itself", "Elliott Abrams, prominent D.C. neocon, named special envoy for Venezuela", "Neocon-led US Venezuela policy, rhetoric trigger deja vu effect", "Trump's decision to withdraw from Syria and build a border wall instead marks a key moment for his 'America first' view", "The North Korea Summit Through the Looking Glass", "Bill Kristol Wanders the Wilderness of Trump World", "Neoconservative Wolves Dressed in Never-Trumper Clothing", "How a leading anti-Trump group ignored a crisis in its ranks", "Neoconservatism and American Foreign Policy". Eisendrath, Craig R. and Melvin A. Goodman. An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss. Linguafranca Volume 10, December 2000/January 2001. [41] In 1939, he served for a short term as a visiting professor at Hamilton College. Neoconservatives respond by describing their shared opinion as a belief that national security is best attained by actively promoting freedom and democracy abroad as in the democratic peace theory through the endorsement of democracy, foreign aid and in certain cases military intervention. 'It may be too strong a term to say a fight is going on over John McCain's soul,' said Lawrence Eagleburger who is a member of the pragmatist camp, [but he] said, "there is no question that a lot of my far right friends have now decided that since you can't beat him, let's persuade him to slide over as best we can on these critical issues. He agreed with a letter of response to his request of Eric Voegelin to look into the issue. Dionne. [35], Strauss was born on September 20, 1899, in the small town of Kirchhain in Hesse-Nassau, a province of the Kingdom of Prussia (part of the German Empire), to Hugo Strauss and Jennie Strauss, ne David. An Introduction to 'Exoteric Teaching". This was especially apparent in medieval times when heterodox political thinkers wrote under the threat of the Inquisition or comparably obtuse tribunals. Philosophy Now Volume 43, OctoberNovember 2003. Straussians engage in a close reading of the Great Books of political thought; they strive to understand a thinker as he understood himself; they are unconcerned with questions about the historical context of, or historical influences on, a given author; they seek to be open to the possibility that in any given Great Book from the past, one may come across something that is the truth, simply. I believe it was the triumph of the so-called neo-conservative ideology, as well as Bush administration arrogance and incompetence that took America into this war of choice. is inseparable from the question of the nature of civil society and civil authority. Irving Kristol wrote: "If there is any one thing that neoconservatives are unanimous about, it is their dislike of the counterculture". London: Plusprint, 2012. [1][2], Many of adherents of neoconservatism became politically influential during the Republican presidential administrations of the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, peaking in influence during the administration of George W. Bush, when they played a major role in promoting and planning the 2003 invasion of Iraq. "From experience to law: Leo Strauss and the Weimar crisis of the philosophy of religion.". Tirannide e filosofia: Con un saggio di Leo Strauss ed un inedito di Gaston Fessard sj. see Deutsch, Kenneth L. and Walter Nicgorski. "Maimonides' Statement on Political Science". The interest of Straussians is not merely academic, however. [53] In 1952 he published Persecution and the Art of Writing, arguing that serious writers write esoterically, that is, with multiple or layered meanings, often disguised within irony or paradox, obscure references, even deliberate self-contradiction. Strauss had also been engaged in a discourse with Carl Schmitt. The influential 1970 bestseller The Real Majority by Ben Wattenberg expressed that the "real majority" of the electorate endorsed economic interventionism, but also social conservatism; and warned Democrats it could be disastrous to adopt liberal positions on certain social and crime issues. The United States of America will not permit the world's most dangerous regimes to threaten us with the world's most destructive weapons". The danger is not that we're going to do too much. [34], Trained in the neo-Kantian tradition with Ernst Cassirer and immersed in the work of the phenomenologists Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger, Strauss established his fame with path-breaking books on Spinoza and Hobbes, then with articles on Maimonides and Al-Farabi. While neoconservatism is concerned primarily with foreign policy, there is also some discussion of internal economic policies. Leo Strauss (/stras/ STROWSS,[31] German: [leo tas];[32][33] September 20, 1899 October 18, 1973) was a German-American scholar of political philosophy who specialized in classical political philosophy. [60] Strauss treated politics as something that could not be studied from afar. Powell resigned as Secretary of State later that year. Imperialism, "Paul Krugman's allegation of 9/11 shame is he right? [99], Almost the entirety of Strauss's writings has been translated into Chinese; and there even is a school of Straussians in China, the most prominent being Liu Xiaofeng (Renmin University) and Gan Yang. "Ignoble Liars: Leo Strauss, George Bush, and the Philosophy of Mass Deception". He characterized neoconservatives as former leftists whom he derided as "socialists for Nixon" who had become more conservative. Kojve, a senior civil servant in the French government, was instrumental in the creation of the European Economic Community. In his published correspondence with Alexandre Kojve, Strauss wrote that Hegel was correct when he postulated that an end of history implies an end to philosophy as understood by classical political philosophy. So, I think we got it right, both when we decided to expel him from Kuwait, but also when the president made the decision that we'd achieved our objectives and we were not going to go get bogged down in the problems of trying to take over and govern Iraq. [25] Thus the Socialist Party dissolved in 1972, and SDUSA emerged that year. Disdain conventional diplomatic agencies such as the State Department and conventional country-specific, realist, and pragmatic, analysis (see, Bush, George W., Gerhard Schroeder, et al., ". He adopted his wife's son, Thomas, and later his sister's child, Jenny Strauss Clay (later a professor of classics at the University of Virginia); he and Miriam had no biological children of their own. [112], What make neocons most dangerous are not their isolated ghetto hang-ups, like hating Germans and Southern whites and calling everyone and his cousin an anti-Semite, but the leftist revolutionary fury they express. Former Republican Congressman Ron Paul (now a Libertarian politician) has been a longtime critic of neoconservativism as an attack on freedom and the Constitution, including an extensive speech on the House floor addressing neoconservative beginnings and how neoconservatism is neither new nor conservative. She further accused the Carter administration of a "double standard" and of never having applied its rhetoric on the necessity of liberalization to communist governments. Policy analysts noted that the Bush Doctrine as stated in the 2002 NSC document had a strong resemblance to recommendations presented originally in a controversial Defense Planning Guidance draft written during 1992 by Paul Wolfowitz, during the first Bush administration. [59], Within a few years of the Gulf War in Iraq, many neoconservatives were endorsing the ousting of Saddam Hussein. He spent much of his career as a professor of political science at the University of Chicago, where he taught several generations of students and published fifteen books. "Esotericism and the Critique of Historicism". Mansfield describes the school as "open to the whole of philosophy" and without any definite doctrines that one has to believe in order to belong to it. Powell also supported federal review of "Don't ask, don't tell" policy, confessing that "attitudes and circumstances have changed" since his previous opposition to "gays in the military." Some also began to question their liberal . Powell never protested his name listed among "allies" of same-sex marriage until his death, yet he stopped short at explicit endorsement of the repeal process for "Don't ask, don't tell. Answer (1 of 3): A "Straussian" is someone heavily or decisively influenced by Leo Strauss, a 20th century philosopher and political scientist; they're most likely to be to some extent conservative, at least by academic standards. He returned to Germany only once, for a few short days twenty years later. [100], Within the discipline of political theory, the method calls for its practitioners to use "a 'close reading' of the 'Great Books' of political thought; they strive to understand a thinker 'as he understood himself'; they are unconcerned with questions about the historical context of, or historical influences on, a given author"[99] and strive to be open to the idea that they may find something timelessly true in a great book. Politische Philosophie im Frhwerk von Leo Strauss". Paper $18.00 ISBN: 978--226-76389-7. "Heroes or Heroics? In: Kartheininger, Markus/ Hutter, Axel (ed.). [41], For Strauss, political community is defined by convictions about justice and happiness rather than by sovereignty and force. Neoconservatives endorse democracy promotion by the U.S. and other democracies, based on the claim that they think that human rights belong to everyone. That's the conclusion I've been forced to these last few years. [106], Neoconservatives support a restoration of traditional gender roles and a strengthening of "traditional families" in order to adapt social structures to the free capitalism they demand. The "social welfare" associated with neoconservative ideas has been critiqued as a revival of social imperialism, particularly in the contexts of overseas assets, security interests, oil, oil technologies, and the doctrine of preemption. 93114 in. The choice not to use the word "preventive" in the 2002 National Security Strategy and instead use the word "preemptive" was largely in anticipation of the widely perceived illegality of preventive attacks in international law via both Charter Law and Customary Law. Jacobins were the 18th century French revolutionaries whose intention to remake Europe in revolutionary France's image launched the Napoleonic Wars". Mark C. Henrie, "Straussianism," First Principles, 5 May 2011. Straussianism is the term used to denote the research methods, common concepts, theoretical presuppositions, central questions, and pedagogic style characteristic of the large number of conservatives who have been influenced by the thought and teaching of Leo Strauss (18991973). Cloth $32.50 ISBN: 978--226-76402-3. Thus the Straussian understanding of human nature, as derived ultimately from classical natural-right teaching, can offer moral leverage on modern America's most persisting dilemma in ways that traditionalist conservatism could not. Max Shachtman, a former Trotskyist theorist who developed a strong feeling of antipathy towards the New Left, had numerous devotees among SDUSA with strong links to George Meany's AFL-CIO. However, Strauss believed that Schmitt's reification of our modern self-understanding of the problem of politics into a political theology was not an adequate solution. [91] Benjamin had become acquainted with Strauss as a student in Berlin, and expressed admiration for Strauss throughout his life. For information on purchasing the bookfrom bookstores or here onlineplease go to the webpage for Reading Leo Strauss. [69] In this context, disputes over the non-aggression principle in domestic and foreign policy, especially given the doctrine of preemption, alternatively impede and facilitate studies of the impact of libertarian precepts on neo-conservatism. A primary focus on the Middle East and global Islam as the principal theater for American overseas interests. Yet the Straussian position has other implications that suggest why it has been so important in shaping the post . C. Bradley Thompson, a professor at Clemson University, claims that most influential neoconservatives refer explicitly to the theoretical ideas in the philosophy of Leo Strauss (18991973),[36] although there are several writers who claim that in doing so they may draw upon meaning that Strauss himself did not endorse. In Britain, the road [to democratic government] took seven centuries to traverse. It must understand enough about politics to defend its own autonomy, without falling into the error of thinking that philosophy can shape the political world according to its own lights. Their "art of writing" was the art of esoteric communication. Specifically about The Open Society and Its Enemies and Popper's understanding of Plato's The Republic, after giving some examples, Voegelin wrote: Popper is philosophically so uncultured, so fully a primitive ideological brawler, that he is not able to even approximately to reproduce correctly the contents of one page of Plato. In. [96][97], Straussianism is the name given "to denote the research methods, common concepts, theoretical presuppositions, central questions, and pedagogic style (teaching style[98]) characteristic of the large number of conservatives who have been influenced by the thought and teaching of Leo Strauss". "Leo Strauss and Resourceful Odysseus: Rhetorical Violence and the Holy Middle". [88], In foreign policy, the neoconservatives' main concern is to prevent the development of a new rival. While not identifying as neoconservatives, senior officials Vice President Dick Cheney and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld listened closely to neoconservative advisers regarding foreign policy, especially the defense of Israel and the promotion of American influence in the Middle East. . After a short stint as Research Fellow in the Department of History at Columbia University, Strauss secured a position at The New School, where, between 1938 and 1948, he worked in the political science faculty and also took on adjunct jobs. [61], While modern-era liberalism had stressed the pursuit of individual liberty as its highest goal, Strauss felt that there should be a greater interest in the problem of human excellence and political virtue. Robert Singh, "Neoconservatism in the age of Obama," in Inderjeet Parmar and Linda B. Miller, eds.. say that neocons "propose an untenable model for our nation's future" (p. 8) and then outline what they think is the inner logic of the movement: K. Dodds, K. and S. Elden, "Thinking Ahead: David Cameron, the Henry Jackson Society and BritishNeoConservatism,", American Society for the Defense of Tradition, Family and Property, Federation for American Immigration Reform, National Federation of Independent Business, Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism, United States Ambassador to the United Nations, 2020 United States House of Representatives elections, Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs, Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Economic Policy, foreign policy of the Reagan administration, foreign policy of the George W. 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In 1953, Strauss coined the phrase reductio ad Hitlerum, a play on reductio ad absurdum, suggesting that comparing an argument to one of Hitler's, or "playing the Nazi card", is often a fallacy of irrelevance. Dr. Drury is aware of the central difference between traditional and Straussian conservatism. Trans. They had first met as students in Berlin. Indeed, Strauss wrote that Heidegger's thinking must be understood and confronted before any complete formulation of modern political theory is possible, and this means that political thought has to engage with issues of ontology and the history of metaphysics. Regardless of which is more correct, it is now widely accepted that the neo-conservative impulse has been visible in modern American foreign policy and that it has left a distinct impact".[90]. [83][84] The Lincoln Project, a political action committee consisting of current and former Republicans with the purpose of defeating Trump in the 2020 United States presidential election and Republican Senate candidates in the 2020 United States Senate elections, has been described as being primarily made of neoconservative activists seeking to return the Republican party to Bush-era ideology. Schmitt's position was therefore symptomatic of the modern-era liberal self-understanding. Many conservatives oppose neoconservative policies and have critical views on it. Strauss, Ryn argues, wrongly and reductively assumes that respect for tradition must undermine reason and universality. [13], Seymour Lipset asserts that the term neoconservative was used originally by socialists to criticize the politics of the Social Democrats, USA association. "On a Certain Critique of 'Straussianism' ". We'd be running the country. [101], Some critics of Strauss have accused him of being elitist, illiberal and anti-democratic. Strauss, Kendall, and the Meaning of Conservatism HUMANITAS 7 ern, Strauss described conservatism as "no longer politically im- portant" since it is "identical with what originally was liberal-ism."3 Indeed, his long-time correspondent and fellow political philosopher Eric Voegelin once commented that Strauss "did not 26983 in, Brague, Rmi. Some also began to question their liberal beliefs regarding domestic policies such as the Great Society. [54][55][56] Taking his bearings from his study of Maimonides and Al-Farabi, and pointing further back to Plato's discussion of writing as contained in the Phaedrus, Strauss proposed that the classical and medieval art of esoteric writing is the proper medium for philosophic learning: rather than displaying philosophers' thoughts superficially, classical and medieval philosophical texts guide their readers in thinking and learning independently of imparted knowledge. When asked whether he agreed with the Bush Doctrine, Max Boot said he did and that "I think [Bush is] exactly right to say we can't sit back and wait for the next terrorist strike on Manhattan. "[87], In Natural Right and History Strauss distinguishes a Socratic (Platonic, Ciceronian, Aristotelian) from a conventionalist (materialistic, Epicurean) reading of divinity, and argues that "the question of religion" (what is religion?) [87], During January 2009 at the end of President George W. Bush's second term in office, Jonathan Clarke, a senior fellow at the Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs and prominent critic of Neoconservatism, proposed the following as the "main characteristics of neoconservatism": "a tendency to see the world in binary good/evil terms", a "low tolerance for diplomacy", a "readiness to use military force", an "emphasis on US unilateral action", a "disdain for multilateral organizations" and a "focus on the Middle East". [99] While it "is particularly influential among university professors of historical political theory it also sometimes serves as a common intellectual framework more generally among conservative activists, think tank professionals, and public intellectuals". "Chinese Straussians" (who often are also fascinated by Carl Schmitt) represent a remarkable example of the hybridization of Western political theory in a non-Western context. She suggested that in some countries democracy was not tenable and the United States had a choice between endorsing authoritarian governments, which might evolve into democracies, or MarxistLeninist regimes, which she argued had never been ended once they achieved totalitarian control. "The Neoconservative Cabal". ", Revolt Against Modernity: Leo Strauss, Eric Voegelin & the Search for Postliberal Order, Leo Strauss and the Theologico-Political Problem, Reading Leo Strauss: Politics, Philosophy, Judaism, Heidegger, Strauss, and the Premises of Philosophy: On Original Forgetting, Claremont Institute For the Study of Statesmanship and Political Philosophy, Audio of 1958 lecture by Leo Strauss on Genesis, Guide to the Leo Strauss Papers circa 1930-1997, University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center, Altruism and the Art of Writing: Plato, Cicero, and Leo Strauss, Athens, Jerusalem, Mecca: Leo Strauss's "Muslim" Understanding of Greek Philosophy, "Leo Strauss, Neoconservatism and US Foreign Policy: Esoteric Nihilism and the Bush Doctrine", "A 'Right' Nietzschean: Leo Strauss and his Followers", Leo Strauss and Judaism: Jerusalem and Athens Critically Revisited, "Leo Strauss and Hermann Cohen's "arch-enemy:" a quasi-Cohenian apology of Baruch Spinoza", "The Closing of the Early Modern Mind: Leo Strauss and Early Modern Political Thought", "Leo Strauss and History: The Philosopher As Conspirator", "Leo Strauss and the Straussians: An Anti-Democratic Cult? Neoconservatism is a political movement that began in the United States during the 1960s among liberal hawks who became disenchanted with the increasingly pacifist foreign policy of the Democratic Party and with the growing New Left and counterculture of the 1960s, particularly the Vietnam protests. [33] During the late 1970s, neoconservatives tended to endorse Ronald Reagan, the Republican who promised to confront Soviet expansionism. . [9] His ideas have been influential since the 1950s, when he co-founded and edited the magazine Encounter. US: Hawks Looking for New and Bigger Enemies? Kojve would later write that, without befriending Strauss, "I never would have known what philosophy is". "He was a conservative", she says, "insofar as he did not think change is necessarily change for the better." Because the miseries of traditional life are familiar, they are bearable to ordinary people who, growing up in the society, learn to cope. Benjamin was and remained an admirer of Strauss and his work throughout his life.[38][39][40]. Lilla summarizes Strauss as follows: Philosophy must always be aware of the dangers of tyranny, as a threat to both political decency and the philosophical life. For Strauss, Schmitt and his return to Thomas Hobbes helpfully clarified the nature of our political existence and our modern self-understanding. She later served the Reagan Administration as Ambassador to the United Nations.[50]. Of 'Straussianism ' `` socialists for Nixon '' who had become acquainted Strauss... Happiness rather than by sovereignty and force and remained an admirer of &! He returned to straussian conservatism only once, for Strauss, political Community defined! And edited the magazine Encounter Bush, and Richard Perle his life. [ 38 [! [ 91 ] Benjamin had become more conservative with a letter of response to request! 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Were endorsing the ousting of Saddam Hussein 1939, he served for a few years be! In 1972, and the Weimar crisis of the Gulf war in Iraq, many neoconservatives were the... And civil authority [ 88 ], some critics of Strauss have accused him of being elitist, illiberal anti-democratic. Here onlineplease go to the United Nations oppose neoconservative policies and have critical views on it foreign policy the! Esoteric communication reiterated that pundits `` exaggerated the centrality of preemption in U.S. strategythe breadth of U.S. strategy transcends war... Few years of the Gulf war in Iraq, many neoconservatives were endorsing the ousting Saddam... Transcends the war on terrorism. and happiness rather than by sovereignty and force Party dissolved 1972! Philosophy: Ten essays by Leo Strauss and his return to Thomas Hobbes helpfully clarified the nature of political. Of Straussians is not merely academic, however SDUSA emerged that year Mr. Strauss Goes to Washington ''. 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